For reception small works as well -
https://www.pa3hcm.nl/?p=1232
Same for transmission -
https://www.cdarc.org.uk/downloads/presentations/VLF_Through_Ground.pdf
Of course as stated not as efficient as wavelength sized solutions.
Memories come back of my 1st project after BsEE univ. Watts all this Stuff about VLF?
I had to design a 5 ch. micropower Doppler Rx sniffing VLF signals broadcast by US military @ 1MW scatter around the northern hemisphere for submarine communication and self-tracking. They are cesium time-sync'd VLF carriers with a common denominator of 100 Hz to extend the range of tracking distance in km/360 deg cycle. It had to survive -40'C in the Beaufort Sea and only consume 10 mW max (or was it 50 mW? ) using my JFET to CMOS PLL design. I received the signals and filter then with 5 deg X cut ceramic filters then down-converted each of the 5 VLF channels to 100 Hz. The result was to track the weather station on ice movement of 20 km /day by measuring the relative phase shift with time interval counters.
My colleague designed the 400 MHz Tx for the uplink to GOES #1. It was the world's 1st floating automated weather station and also in Canada's Arctic. The idea was to understand the motion of ice and replace the daily reconnaissance airplane looking tracking icebergs and ice flows that could shear oil wells or drills from moving ice. Circa 1976.
I It
, ended up in Siberia long after I upgraded my salary 25% after 4 yrs moving from Aerospace R&D to Telecom R&D.
I wanted to make an electronic fuse using a tiny light bulb which acts as a more constant current limit with its higher voltage PTC characteristics but ended-up using a better current limiter design that would not break open and could self-recover in the event of a glitch from lightning. The antenna was too small as it was sitting near the 20m vertical egg-beater (custom Darrius/Sevonious wind gen) My Egyptian colleague who had a PhD but didn't know transistors as well designed the 800 W generator with hockey puck diodes for the battery piles and quickly learned about the misgivings of the SOA to fuse power transistors.
At that time 60 Hz from Manitoba's Dorsey HVDC station was also cesium time sync'd but I also had a 10 MHz OCXO counter to measure phase shift and the atmosphere carrier the signals around the ionosphere in the globe except for the daily diurnal shift of sunrise and sunset of the atmospheric path.
It was a blast, but only my boss's boss went to Tuktiactuk to measure the <10 uV signal strength I had to deal with. The problem with Aerospace is every design was a one-of-a-kind world's first and everything that went up or out the door never came back. It wasn't until 30 yrs later I met my goal of designing something in high-volume production 10k/mo for Lucent at half their best effort in cost and 1/4 of the time to 1st prototype (4wks) and half their size IU vs 2U 19" rack. Those were the days that carried into nights and the next day without breaks like Elon sleeping in the Tesla factory except I felt like a 1 man show. Although I had a brilliant mentor, a gold medalist who taught me all the BJT design options and I had a library of mil-stds to learn about everything with discrete components and Xtals.
But it was my Dad who gave me the electronic inspiration when I was 12 and he made me a Crystal detector pickle jar AM radio just like your tape recorder but no batteries required with a crystal ear bud that had more bass tightly fit before going to sleep. Thankyou Dad.