But, how does such a resistance decrease the charging rate so drastically?
The phone (or device) charge control circuit needs to be able to give out 4.2V to fully charge a single lithium cell.
The charge control circuit, that has to control both voltage and current, will itself cause some voltage drop to be able to actually operate and regulate the charge.
Under ideal conditions, there is just 0.8V for the charge circuit to work within, both measuring and controlling the current and voltage, assuming a perfect 5.0V high current supply and zero cable resistance.
The charge control circuit would typically try stepping up the charge current in stages, aiming for whatever limit the USB power source is configured for.
If the input voltage at the phone drops enough to effect charging at a particular current, it would step the current back down to a level that can be sustained without too much voltage drop.
Testing one of the very few (all old) USB A-B cables I have that will run such as a USB scope or audio interface, so lower than normal voltage drops, the power cores measure around 0.11 Ohms each; 0.22 Ohms total.
A brand new - and supposedly "high current" - A-B cable measures around 0.16 Ohms per core, 0.32 Ohms total. Those are both around 5mm diameter cables.
I don't have any typical thin unbranded phone cables to test, I've thrown them out and only have high current rated types..
However, that heavy 0.32 Ohm cable would cause a voltage drop of 160mV at 0.5A, 0.32V at 1A or 0.64V at 2A
With only the 0.8V available for the charge regulator, you can see how much even an apparently trivial resistance cause voltage drops that could prevent it from functioning, at anything other than low current.
You also have to trust that the supplier is honest and gives genuine ratings for the cables they sell:
This is an example of a really abysmal cable - a 3m A-B that did not work on anything.
The cable is marked as each core being 24AWG:
However, 24AWG copper wire has a resistance of around 85 milliohms per metre, so this should measure around 250 milliohms.
It actually measures just under TWO Ohms on each power core... Around 1.7 - 1.8 Ohms each...
I cut the plugs off as soon as I discovered it was useless, so it could not get confused for a usable cable. It looks like copper wire, but it certainly does not measure as it should - thinner and possibly plated aluminium??